April 1st Readings

I really found chapter 1 of McKay & Heng to be interesting. Globalization can seem to be such a broad concept, but I liked how the chapter categorized it as internationalization (growth of international exchange), liberalization (removal of government imposed restrictions), universalization (spreading of common objects and experiences to everyone), westernization (modernization), and deterrioritalization (change of social space so it is no longer mapped in terms of territorial places, distances, or borders).

Personally, before reading this chapter, I thought globalization was a way of 'unifying' the world and connecting people from all over. Technology, to me, is a great way to show the affects of globalization. It blows my mind that I am able to skype my Spanish host family from when I studied abroad at any time! (except for the time difference). This allows me to maintain close communication from them, constantly learning and practicing the Spanish language.

I also liked how the hegemony argument was brought up in regards to globalization. However, it tends to ignore the broader political context of the spread of English (p.8). We often ignore power and struggle in language by focusing on the standardization of local versions of English.

Colonialism is also central to the spread of English. Teaching English was always a major component of early settling and many associated English with power, thus more job access.

Phillipson offered five tenets, and while they were popular, they were also challenged by some. One that I think could be considered very controversial is number five- "if other languages are used much, standards of English will drop." I am a bilingual education major and I have seen research studies that show that students who are bilingual are able to transfer skills between languages, thus being very knowledgeable in both languages.

Overall, there are many incentives for learning English- media, academic, economic, social, and more. Globalization requires a common language, which is English presently. To explain its international status, we must trace back to colonialism and other historical roots. We must recognize the POWER that colonizers have exerted to impose English and the learner's motivation/investment (as Norton distinguished). The chapter also questioned how wide-spread English acquisition has affected other languages.

Chapter 2 particularly interested me because it discussed bilingual programs. One of the first challenges to the English-only policies of schools was in 1939. Jorge Bocobo suggested local languages could be used for support in the primary grades. Eventually, this led to the Revised Philippine Education Program, which used vernacular languages as the medium of instruction in the first two grades with a shift to English as the medium from third grade through college. The question raised was just how successful the program was in developing nationalism and promoting academic achievement. One finding said that students who achieved well in English also achieved well in Pilipino, but the reverse was not true. Also, many people in the Philippines accept Pilipino as a linguistic symbol of national identity but also accept the need for keeping up or maintaining English for economic reasons. Personally, I see worth in maintaining the native language to keep cultural ties and heritage. For this type of program to be successful, teachers must be very competent.

To conclude this chapter, we found that in inner circle countries, language diversity is often viewed as a problem. Therefore, programs are designed to encourage the acquisition of English with little emphasis on developing students' first language. How do we avoid social segregation in doing so? Many language minority students are seen as outsiders and their cognitive academic abilities are often questioned. In outer circle countries, English proficiency is necessary for tertiary education. How can we provide equal access to English education so less advantaged students have success in higher education? While some outer circle countries support multilingualism, there are practical problems in implementing both the native language and English in the classroom. Lastly, in expanding circle countries, educators must motivate learners, especially those who don't see a need to learn English. This reminds me of Bonny Norton's article on investment v. motivation. I observed in a dual language (Spanish/English) classroom and saw that many of the English-speaking children did not want to learn Spanish. They weren't investing, and it made me question whether the lottery (random choice) was the best way to pick the students who would participate in the dual language program. What if the teachers lack confidence in speaking English?


According to the Kubota 2002 article, globalization implies increased local diversity influenced by human contact across cultural boundaries as well as speedy exchange of commonalities and information. This is more like the definition I had in my head before reading.

"While globalization projects the image of diversity, it also implies cultural
homogenization influenced by global standardization of economic activities and a flow of cultural goods from the center to the periphery" (1).

English is seen as a synonym to foreign language in Japanese schools. While there has been an increased aim to other languages, there is an intensified emphasis on English especially. This is shown through foreign language offerings in high school, new initiatives at elementary schools, and in assistant language teachers. It reminds me of the push I am feeling for English-speaking people in the United States to learn Spanish. Now there are more and more bilingual, dual language program classrooms.

The Native Speaker Myth is the idealization of a native speaker as someone who has perfect, innate knowledge of a language and culture and is the 'best teacher of English' therefore.

There is symbolic power attached to English as the international language, and this reinforces perceived superiority of English over other languages represented in the world. English is the international language that bridges multiple cultures and enables them to understand the world and cultural diversity.

Language learning and teaching in Japan in the age of globalization has been influenced by Kokusaika that blends Anglicization and nationalism. Anglicization is the development of international understanding and intercultural commonalitites is heavily focused on the white middle class. English and the essentialized Anglo culture are the priority rather than focusing on other languages and cultures in the world. Nationalism, on the other hand, emphasizes national identity and essentializes images of Japanese language and culture versus that of the United States.

Overall, I found this week's readings very intriguing and insightful in regards to the term globalization and its effects on the world, particularly in viewing English as the international language.